Honeybees serve as agricultural pollinators that are widely managed by commercial beekeepers. They also host pathogens and Varroa mites that can affect a colony’s strength and survival.

Antibiotics approved by the FDA can be used to proactively manage infection and endemic disease occurring in the US and Canada. These target 2 common bacterial diseases: American foulbrood (AFB) and European foulbrood (EFB).

There are a dozen antimicrobial drugs approved by the FDA for use in honeybee colonies for AFB and EFB. These all rely on 1 of 3 antibiotics: oxytetracycline, tylosin and lincomycin. These medications—which are also approved for use in other animal species—are required to be ordered or administered by a licensed veterinarian through a prescription or a veterinary feed directive (VFD).

According to the FDA and Jörg Mayer, DVM, MS, DABVP, DECZM, DACZM, professor of zoological medicine at the University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine in Athens, oxytetracycline is the only FDA-approved antimicrobial for bees that requires a VFD.

“As a broad generalization for the bees: All medically important feed additives require a VFD and all medically important water soluble antibiotics require a prescription,” Mayer said in a lecture at the 2025 Veterinary Meeting and Expo in Orlando, Florida.

Although many individuals primarily view honeybees as food-producing animals, all veterinarians including those in general practice, can care for and prescribe for them, according to Kaitlyn Krebs, DVM, MBA, DABVP (Canine/ Feline), an assistant professor in clinical primary care at the University of Pennsylvania’s Ryan Veterinary Hospital in Philadelphia, as well as a beekeeper. “We don’t really learn about bee medicine in veterinary school…but as veterinarians, we have a responsibility to the bees,” Krebs said in a 

interview at the 2024 American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) Convention in Austin, Texas.

According to Mayer, when writing a prescription or VFD for honeybees, a veterinarian must be able to diagnose AFB and EFB. “The big problem that veterinarians writing those prescriptions or [VFDs] need to be aware [of is] that there are many states where [AFB] is either a notifiable or reportable disease,” Mayer said in a 

When it comes to prescribing antimicrobials, Lee Pope, DVM, a veterinary consultant for Revelation Animal Health, emphasized the need for veterinarians to be mindful of the honey being created by bees and, like any drug, to provide education for administering proper doses. “The caution with beekeepers and veterinarians treating bees is just to remember [that] this is a food animal species, essentially. So we can’t just grab random medications. We have to be very cautious in what we use [and] how it’s used,” Pope said in a 

interview. “Going over the prescription with the client, about how to give it and giving specific details…[and] being very specific so there’s no gray zone.”

After a beekeeper has obtained a prescription or VFD from a veterinarian, they can work with a distributor of the drug or medicated feed or manufacture their own feed while complying with applicable regulations.

Drugs approved by the FDA for use in honeybee colonies are not typically packed specifically for that purpose. Because these medications are not typically purchased in “unit-of-use containers” appropriate for honeybee use, veterinarians often are required to repackage them to accommodate exact doses that a beekeeper can administer.

Before antibiotics are administered to a honeybee colony, they are often mixed with dry sugar. The compounded mixture is then sprinkled on top of the brood nest at the bottom of the hive.

Pope noted that although more research in the field is anticipated, these medications have been studied with bees. “We know how well it works,” he said.

Mayer noted that beekeepers should be encouraged to reach out to veterinarians if they think they need antibiotics.2 “There are plenty of references and resources available to help everyone work through the process,” he said.

Krebs said continuing education opportunities, industry conference lectures, webinars and online resources are available to professionals seeking information about caring for honeybees.4 “The AVMA has a great handbook for veterinarians who are looking to get into honeybees and there’s the Honey Bee Veterinary Consortium as well that provides a ton of resources for veterinary practitioners. But there’s a ton of other resources out there as well,” she said.

Anderson KE, Allen NO, Copeland DC, et al. A longitudinal field study of commercial honeybees shows that nonnative probiotics do not rescue antibiotic treatment, and are generally not beneficial. 

. 2024;14(1):1954. doi:10.1038/ s41598-024-52118-z

Mayer J. Bee germs: bacterial and fungal diseases in the honeybee. Presented at: Veterinary Meeting & Expo; January 25-29, 2025. Orlando, FL.

Using medically important antimicrobials in bees—questions and answers. FDA. January 3, 2024. Accessed March 18, 2025. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/development-approval-process/using-medically-important-antimicrobials-bees-questions-and-answers

Krebs K, Coppock K. Caring for honeybees in general practice. 

. June 21, 2024. Accessed March 18, 2025. https://www.dvm360.com/view/ caring-for-honey-bees-in-general-practice

Richards ED, Tell LA, Davis JL, et al. Honeybee medicine for veterinarians and guidance for avoiding violative chemical residues in honey. 

. 2021;259(8);860-873. doi:10.2460/javma.259.8.860

How to administer antibiotics to a beehive. 

September 10, 2017. Accessed March 18, 2025. https://www. dvm360.com/view/how-to-administer-antibiotics-to-a-beehive

Articles

The entire hive can be treated for common bacterial diseases

Caring for honeybees with antimicrobials

Authorities in Warren, Ohio, are investigating a case of antifreeze poisoning of community cats in a mobile home community. It is believed that at least 3 cats were killed by the act.

Following a report on March 26, 2025, humane agents from the nonprofit charity Animal Welfare League (AWL) of Trumbull County in Warren, Ohio, found 3 bowls containing tuna mixed with antifreeze and bleach in an outdoor location at the Blue Water Manor mobile home community in Trumbull County. A bottle of bleach was found discarded near the bowls on the ground.

“All signs point to local community cats, or unowned cats who live outdoors, as the target of deliberate poisoning,” wrote Alley Cat Allies, an advocacy organization for cats, in a news release.

 “Three cats are believed to have consumed the poisoned food and died as a result.”

Ethylene glycol, the active ingredient in antifreeze, is highly toxic to cats. The liquid has a sweet taste that attracts animals. Although many antifreeze products now include a bittering agent, many cats are still not deterred from drinking it.

Just 1 teaspoon of ethylene glycol is enough to poison a cat.

“Cats who ingest the toxin suffer a slow and painful death,” wrote Alley Cat Allies.

Alley Cat Allies is offering a reward of up to $10,000 for information that leads to the prosecution and conviction of those involved in the antifreeze poisoning. Anyone with any information about the incident is encouraged to contact the Trumbull AWL Humane Investigations Department at 330-539-5300 or 

“Alley Cat Allies is working with Trumbull AWL to ensure justice is served for the cats who suffered and died under this act of senseless, disturbing cruelty,” Charlene Pedrolie, president and chief operating officer of Alley Cat Allies, said in the news release.

 “We ask anyone with information to please come forward, for the sake of these cats and the many more whose lives are at risk right now.”

Clinical signs of ethylene glycol poisoning are time- and dose-dependent and can be divided in 3 stages

occurs within 30 minutes to 12 hours of ingestion. During this period, symptoms mimic alcohol intoxication. Cats may exhibit signs of lethargy, vomiting, incoordination, polydipsia, and polyuria. Central nervous system symptoms may also occur, including depression, stupor, ataxia, knuckling, and decreased proprioception.

occurs 12 to 24 hours post-ingestion. Dehydration can occur, along with an elevated heart rate and faster breathing. Some of the signs of toxicity seem to improve drastically in this stage, which may create a false sense of security in pet owners.

also happens 12 to 24 hours after ingestion. At this stage, oliguric acute kidney failure precedes anuria. In the abdomen, painful and enlarged kidneys can be detected. Additional symptoms include tachycardia, tachypnea, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, oral ulcers, salivation, lethargy, seizures, coma, and death.

To confirm ethylene glycol poisoning, veterinarians should conduct a point-of-care semiquantitative test or measurement of serum ethylene glycol concentration, perform a physical examination, and look at the patient’s history and laboratory data.

 Treatment consists of intravenous fluid therapy; 4-methylpyrazole (4-MP, fomepizole), 20% ethanol boluses, or 30% ethanol constant-rate infusion; supportive care, including treatment of metabolic derangements; and gastrointestinal support.

Alley Cat Allies offers $10,000 reward for information on deadly antifreeze poisoning of cats in Warren, Ohio. News release. Alley Cat Allies. March 31, 2025. Accessed April 8, 2025. 

https://www.alleycat.org/alley-cat-allies-offers-10000-reward-for-information-on-deadly-antifreeze-poisoning-of-cats-in-warren-ohio/

Schmid R, Brutlag A, Ruotsalo K, et al. Ethylene glycol poisoning in cats. VCA Animal Hospitals. Accessed April 8, 2025. 

https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/ethylene-glycol-poisoning-in-cats

Regehr T. Ethylene glycol toxicosis in animals. Merck Veterinary Manual. September 2024. Accessed April 8, 2025. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/toxicology/ethylene-glycol-toxicosis/ethylene-glycol-toxicosis-in-animals

Several cats living outdoors in a mobile home community died following consumption of tuna mixed with antifreeze and bleach

Investigation underway after cats are poisoned with antifreeze in Ohio

The FDA is making an unapproved antiparasitic and antimicrobial drug legally available for use with ornamental finfish such as goldfish, discus, koi, and tropical fish species. The drug Faunamor is used for treating 

, which is also known as “Ich” or “white spot disease,” in fish commonly kept as pets in home aquariums and hobby ponds.

Manufactured by Aquarium Münster Pahlsmeier GmbH in Telgte, Germany, Faunamor contains a trio of active ingredients including methylthionine chloride, malachite green oxalate and acriflavine chloride immersion solution. According to the FDA, Faunamor has been added to the FDA’s Index of Legally Marketed Unapproved New Animal Drugs for Minor Species and is the only legal drug for treating white spot disease that is currently on the market. It is available over the counter in 20 mL and 100 mL glass bottles. 

The parasite that causes white spot disease can be introduced into a pond, tank, or home aquarium simply by adding new fish or equipment that has been moved from another unit infected by 

. White spot disease is highly contagious, can spread rapidly between fish, and affects many types of ornamental fish. Infection outbreaks can kill all the fish in the tank, aquarium, or pond in a short time, according to the FDA.

Fish infected with white spot disease may appear weak or lethargic and not want to eat. However, the most common sign of infection is the presence of small, blister-like white spots on a fish’s skin or gills.

An expert panel evaluated the safety and effectiveness of Faunamor as part of the indexing process, which is a quicker and less expensive path to legal marketing status for certain products than the drug approval process. The indexing panel concluded that the benefits of using this drug outweigh its risks to ornamental finfish. Other unapproved drugs being used to treat white spot disease have not been reviewed by the FDA for safety and effectiveness, according to the agency.

FDA announces new drug treating common disease in ornamental pet fish. News release. FDA. April 8, 2025. Accessed April 8, 2025. 

https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/cvm-updates/fda-announces-new-drug-treating-common-disease-ornamental-pet-fish?utm_medium=email&utm_source=govdelivery

Drug for treating common disease in pet fish is now legally available

Only 26% of dairy producers and 13% to 42% of veterinarians provide adequate pain management to dairy cattle experiencing mastitis, a recognized painful condition, according to researchers. Mastitis is just one example showcasing the lack of pain control use in the dairy industry.

Pain in Dairy Cattle: A Narrative Review of the Need for Pain Control, Industry Practices and Stakeholder Expectations, and Opportunities

, summarizes common painful conditions and procedures in dairy cattle. It also covers quality assurance programs’ pain management recommendations and the uptake of pain management in practice.

Dairy cattle experience pain during necessary or unavoidable procedures and conditions such as dehorning, castration, abdominal surgery, lameness, and mastitis. Pain can decrease dairy production and increase animal distress, negatively impacting welfare. Quality assurance programs, including Farmers Assuring Responsible Management (USA), proAction (Canada), and Red Tractor (UK), have guidelines on pain management in dairy cattle; however, the industry has implemented recommended strategies inconsistently.

Signs and symptoms of pain in cattle include increased heart rate and cortisol, abnormal gait, reduced feed and milk intake, lethargy, and prolonged lying. If a cow exhibits any of these characteristics, it is crucial to mitigate pain. Appropriate pain alleviation methods recommended for common procedures (e.g., dehorning, castration, abdominal surgery) are local anesthetics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Recommendations for common conditions such as (e.g., lameness, mastitis) include NSAIDs, early intervention, and supportive therapy such as corrective hoof trimming and hoof blocks. Preferred NSAIDs in cattle are ketoprofen, meloxicam, and flunixin meglumine.

A standard approach as simple as giving an NSAID can significantly improve industry practice. Regardless, current levels of pain management administration by producers and veterinarians in Europe and North America are low. Only 24% to 35% of producers and 39% to 56% of veterinarians provide NSAIDs/systemic analgesia for dehorning, while 8% to 10% and 25% to 42% for castration; 80% and 60-75% for lameness, 61% to 98% and 61-77% for abdominal surgeries, and 26% and 13-42% for mastitis, respectively. Although these painful procedures and conditions are usual among cattle, pain does not need to be as common. Educating producers and veterinarians on the importance of pain management is the first step to closing the gap.

The study authors conclude further research is needed to identify and overcome barriers to adopting pain management strategies, which are vital to minimizing pain in animals and ensuring productive and sustainable dairy production.

, is a 2025 PharmD candidate from the University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy in Storrs.

Roche S, Saraceni J, Zehr L, Renaud D. Pain in dairy cattle: A narrative review of the need for pain control, industry practices and stakeholder expectations, and opportunities. 

Current levels of pain management administration by dairy producers and veterinarians in Europe and North America are low.

Take an NSAID at the first sign of pain? Dairy cattle should, too

In this interview with dvm360, Link Welborn, DVM, DABVP, shares how he helps his clinic and clients prepare for a natural disaster, plus their biggest challenges in the aftermath of a disaster.

Video interview with Link Welborn, DVM, DABVP

With natural disasters like wildfires, hurricanes, tornados, and others impacting parts of the United States, clients and clinics need to be prepared for a disaster to strike in their area, but how can they prepare?

, Link Welborn, DVM, DABVP, chief veterinary officer, Covetrus, shared his insights from 40 years of experience as well as a practice owner of 8 AAHA-accredited practices on how to best prepare your teams and clients for a natural disaster before it strikes. 

Below is a partial transcript, edited lightly for clarity

I think one of the biggest challenges is trying to figure out where best to apply the opportunity to be of service. It obviously, there's a lot of sort of chaos and confusion associated with any natural disaster, and in at least in the case of some of them, they're, you know, it's an ongoing challenge, like, for instance, with wildfires, whereas a hurricane may move on to a different area, but wildfires can continue to be a problem in a given area. So often, it's challenging to try and figure out, well, you know, I want to help, but how can I help? What's the best mechanism to be able to be of use? 

I think that the best resources for most in most cases, is to rely on the State Veterinary Medical Association. Every state has a Veterinary Medical Association (VMA). They typically work closely with the [American Veterinary Medical Association] that has a disaster response team, and often the state VMA is in a position to be able to know, you know, where resources are needed, and help channel those resources most appropriately

I think one of the most important things is indeed that preparation, particularly for pet owners, because most pet owners don't think about what they need to do until, frankly the disaster is upon them. I obviously live in hurricane country, so we see this year after year and so what we try to do is make sure that pets are microchipped first of all, because if a pet does wind up being separated from their family, the likelihood of that pet being returned to the family is enhanced exponentially if they've got a microchip. If they're not microchipped, it's much more challenging to be able to get that pet back to their owner. And we certainly, we've certainly seen that over and over again, so that's probably the number one preparation that we would encourage.

Videos

Link Welborn, DVM, DABVP, shares his insights and tips on how to better prepare your hospital, clients, and patients for a natural disaster

Disaster preparedness in veterinary practice

Aaron Shaw, OTR/L, CHT, CSCS, emphasizes the importance of coming into the clinic with an emotionally stable state

The impact of mental health on work and daily life

At least 50% of veterinarians report moderate to high levels of burnout, with female veterinarians experiencing a higher risk of burnout compared to males, according to a 2023 study published in the National Library of Medicine.

 The same study also found that younger and less experienced veterinarians as well as those with higher educational debt loans also exhibited higher burnout risk.

With burnout being rampant in the veterinary profession, 

 interviewed Aaron Shaw, OTR/L, CHT, CSCS, occupational therapist, certified hand therapist, strength and conditioning specialist, speaker, mentor, and host of the podcast 

, on the topic of wellness in the veterinary profession. 

 why investing in wellness is important as a veterinary professional, and talked about the concept of “healthspan.” In this new video, Shaw discusses the impact of mental health on work and daily life, emphasizing the importance of emotional stability and stress management.

The following is a transcript of the video: 

Mental health has a huge impact on work and daily life. I mean, the impacts, it's hard to think of like what it doesn't impact. The reality is that our emotional state, our ability to manage stress, to manage the challenges, good and bad challenges, or I should say, positive and negative challenges, that kind of come our way moment to moment really hinges on us being present and engaged, and that has to be on the foundation of managing stress, having a durable emotional sense—emotional well-being sense—of how to make decisions well that will impact patients, that will impact not only the patients themselves—the animals— but also the caregivers, the pet parents.

So, it is absolutely key to come in with a level head, emotionally stable, balanced, and that takes a bit of effort to do, but it's absolutely necessary to have ultimately the best outcomes for patient care.

Steffey MA, Griffon DJ, Risselada M, et al. Veterinarian Burnout Demographics and organizational impacts: A narrative review. 

. 2023;10. doi:10.3389/fvets.2023.1184526